Reflection Paper
Innovations During the Middle Ages
The term “Dark Ages,” a term once used by historians to describe the period in Europe between 476 CE, the fall of the Roman Empire, and 1400 CE, the birth of the Renaissance, seemingly implies that no accomplishments were made during this era; however, the origin of the phrase has a more philosophical connotation, which after further examination, does little to denigrate the significant contributions from the time period and serves mainly as an aesthetic judgment on the shift of cultural ideals (Dark).
In the early days of the Renaissance, the new philosophical concept of humanism was emerging (Kidner et al. 340). Turning their attention to the notion of what it means to be human, humanist scholars admired ancient Roman literature for its technical merit of grammar and vocabulary, rather than theology (Kidner et al. 340). One of the earliest humanists, Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, traveled Europe as an ambassador to the Avignon popes (Kidner et al. 342). He stopped at monasteries along his route and explored the books and manuscripts contained within their libraries, discovering lost Roman texts (Kidner et al. 342). Petrarch wrote of the ancient Romans “amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius, no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom” (Dark). Petrarch took the Christian metaphor of light and dark equating to good and evil and adapted it for secular purposes (Dark). While antiquity had generally been seen as a dark period for its lack of Christianity, Petrarch viewed it as a time of light due to its literature, ideals and art, while simultaneously eschewing his own time as a period without any significant cultural achievements (Dark).
Despite Petrarch’s dim view of the era, the Middle Ages saw incredible advancements in technology, which lead to new techniques in agriculture and ultimately resulted in a doubling of the population (Power Point, Chapter 10). The advent of the moldboard plough in the 10th century made it possible to turn soil that had been otherwise difficult to cultivate (Lund). The earliest ploughs, known as ard or scratch ploughs, were able to rake the loose, dry sand that covered much of the landscape in agriculturally prosperous southern England, but were not much help in the heavy clay soil of the north (Lund). Farmers began experimenting with plough construction, adding wheels, which allowed the ploughs to move more easily through the heavier soil (Kidner et al. 293). A coulter was added, a blade which cut vertically through the earth, followed by a plowshare, a second blade which cut horizontally (Kidner et al. 293). The cut soil was then folded into ridged rows by the moldboard, made fleet by the wheels (Kidner et al. 293). The heavy plow allowed farmers to expand north into the more fertile clay earth, leading to greater yields, growing trade, expanding cities, and economic prosperity (Lund). Without the innovation of the moldboard plough, expansion north would have been stunted, leaving farmers concentrated in an area that could not sustain as many crops.
Along with the moldboard plough came a new method of carting: the horse (Kidner et al. 293). Previously, farmers had been using oxen to pull the plough. While strong, the oxen were piteously slow and obtuse. Farmers were aware that horses were generally able to work faster and longer, and their intelligence allowed them to understand verbal cues, requiring less guidance; however, the harnesses designed for the oxen were unsuitable for the horse (Kidner et al. 293). A new harness was devised that lay on the shoulders of the horse, rather than the neck, allowing farmers to work more hours and cultivate more land (Kidner et al. 293). Without the ability to use the horse to pull the ploughs, agricultural growth would have been much slower, due to the limited speed of the oxen, and overall yields reduced.
With more land to cultivate, the need arose for more mills to process the grain; the few hundred mills in the Early Middle Ages grew to nearly 6000 by the writing of the Domesday book, an exhaustive survey of the kingdom, commissioned by William the Conqueror in 1086 (Class Notes). Found throughout northern England, the Norse mill, a horizontally mounted waterwheel, ground grain without the need for gearing (History). Due to the requirement of a swift moving water to drive the heavy millstone, it is more probable that the majority of the 5,624 mills of the Domesday Book were vertical undershot mills (History). While initially used to grind grain, the mills evolved during subsequent centuries and were then used for processing cloth, sawing wood, and making oil (History). The proliferation of mills made it possible to produce a greater quantity of goods through more efficient mechanized means.
With larger agricultural yields amplified by improvements of processing techniques leading to a surplus of goods, there was then a distinct increase in markets and trade fairs (Kidner et al. 293). The increase in people and goods in a given place led to the rise of towns (Kidner et al. 293). With towns came merchants and tradesmen, who coalesced into an organization of guilds, an association of suppliers and craftsmen who specialized in particular goods or services (Kidner et al. 293). Up until this point, merchants and tradesmen were inclined to travel together from settlement to settlement, forming unions with each other for protection against thieves or greedy feudal lords (Guild). With the advent of towns, the guilds grew larger and established roots. Now, guilds could exercise a monopoly over their wares or trade (Guild). Merchant guilds began to control the sale of food and goods, fixed prices, and charged foreign traders a fee to interact with the local economy (Guild). Craft guilds set quality guidelines and standardized practices within their particular trade (Guild).
In order to strengthen their influence and expand their numbers, the guilds utilized a hierarchical system of apprenticeship (Guild). The master of the trade would accept an apprentice, a young boy who would live with the master and his family while being trained in the craft (Guild). They were given food, shelter and education in return for working without monetary compensation (Guild). After a period of time, generally between five to nine years, the apprentice would become a journeyman, and could then go to work for another master and earn a wage (Guild). Guilds were highly competitive and oftentimes, masters would be selective of their apprentices, only selecting those with wealth or social status as well as familial ties (Guild).
While the first secular schools in Europe were guild schools, the concept of the university was on the rise, taking on the structure utilized in the guilds (PowerPoint, Chapter 10). Universities began as informal schools where those with similar interests would gather and contract a guest lecturer to visit and share their knowledge (Class Notes). As time progressed, the schools formalized and took the name universitas, from the Latin for ‘guild’ (PowerPoint, Chapter 10). The universities offered traditional education, such as math, music, and sciences; and were taught by a Master (Class Notes). Like the guild apprenticeship programs, students enrolled in the university would study for a certain period of years and earn their Bachelor’s degree (Class Notes). Once completed, they had the opportunity to continue their studies and ultimately earn a Master’s degree, upon which time they were able to teach at the university (Class Notes). Over time, universities developed specialties; Bologna became the school of law and the University of Paris became a school of theology (Kidner et al. 298). The early universities, drawing from the structure of the guild schools, laid the foundation for the higher education paradigm that is still used today.
Petrarch’s concept of a “Dark Ages” began as an ideology to elevate Classical culture, not as a means to discount the technological advances of the era or attribute any historical significance (Dark). It all boiled down to the philosophical aesthetic that the humanists were nostalgic for Vulgar Latin art and literature and felt that the [at the time] modern literature had gotten too lax in their treatment of grammar and vocabulary (Kidner et al. 340). Extending that narrow sentiment to a sweeping generalization that 900 years of history were somehow insignificant is irresponsible and flawed. The advancements in agriculture, leading to an increase in goods, faster processing, growing trade, expansion of education and ultimately culminating with the creation of a higher education system still in use today, serves to prove that there was, in fact, very much happening in these so-called “Dark Ages.”
In the early days of the Renaissance, the new philosophical concept of humanism was emerging (Kidner et al. 340). Turning their attention to the notion of what it means to be human, humanist scholars admired ancient Roman literature for its technical merit of grammar and vocabulary, rather than theology (Kidner et al. 340). One of the earliest humanists, Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, traveled Europe as an ambassador to the Avignon popes (Kidner et al. 342). He stopped at monasteries along his route and explored the books and manuscripts contained within their libraries, discovering lost Roman texts (Kidner et al. 342). Petrarch wrote of the ancient Romans “amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius, no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom” (Dark). Petrarch took the Christian metaphor of light and dark equating to good and evil and adapted it for secular purposes (Dark). While antiquity had generally been seen as a dark period for its lack of Christianity, Petrarch viewed it as a time of light due to its literature, ideals and art, while simultaneously eschewing his own time as a period without any significant cultural achievements (Dark).
Despite Petrarch’s dim view of the era, the Middle Ages saw incredible advancements in technology, which lead to new techniques in agriculture and ultimately resulted in a doubling of the population (Power Point, Chapter 10). The advent of the moldboard plough in the 10th century made it possible to turn soil that had been otherwise difficult to cultivate (Lund). The earliest ploughs, known as ard or scratch ploughs, were able to rake the loose, dry sand that covered much of the landscape in agriculturally prosperous southern England, but were not much help in the heavy clay soil of the north (Lund). Farmers began experimenting with plough construction, adding wheels, which allowed the ploughs to move more easily through the heavier soil (Kidner et al. 293). A coulter was added, a blade which cut vertically through the earth, followed by a plowshare, a second blade which cut horizontally (Kidner et al. 293). The cut soil was then folded into ridged rows by the moldboard, made fleet by the wheels (Kidner et al. 293). The heavy plow allowed farmers to expand north into the more fertile clay earth, leading to greater yields, growing trade, expanding cities, and economic prosperity (Lund). Without the innovation of the moldboard plough, expansion north would have been stunted, leaving farmers concentrated in an area that could not sustain as many crops.
Along with the moldboard plough came a new method of carting: the horse (Kidner et al. 293). Previously, farmers had been using oxen to pull the plough. While strong, the oxen were piteously slow and obtuse. Farmers were aware that horses were generally able to work faster and longer, and their intelligence allowed them to understand verbal cues, requiring less guidance; however, the harnesses designed for the oxen were unsuitable for the horse (Kidner et al. 293). A new harness was devised that lay on the shoulders of the horse, rather than the neck, allowing farmers to work more hours and cultivate more land (Kidner et al. 293). Without the ability to use the horse to pull the ploughs, agricultural growth would have been much slower, due to the limited speed of the oxen, and overall yields reduced.
With more land to cultivate, the need arose for more mills to process the grain; the few hundred mills in the Early Middle Ages grew to nearly 6000 by the writing of the Domesday book, an exhaustive survey of the kingdom, commissioned by William the Conqueror in 1086 (Class Notes). Found throughout northern England, the Norse mill, a horizontally mounted waterwheel, ground grain without the need for gearing (History). Due to the requirement of a swift moving water to drive the heavy millstone, it is more probable that the majority of the 5,624 mills of the Domesday Book were vertical undershot mills (History). While initially used to grind grain, the mills evolved during subsequent centuries and were then used for processing cloth, sawing wood, and making oil (History). The proliferation of mills made it possible to produce a greater quantity of goods through more efficient mechanized means.
With larger agricultural yields amplified by improvements of processing techniques leading to a surplus of goods, there was then a distinct increase in markets and trade fairs (Kidner et al. 293). The increase in people and goods in a given place led to the rise of towns (Kidner et al. 293). With towns came merchants and tradesmen, who coalesced into an organization of guilds, an association of suppliers and craftsmen who specialized in particular goods or services (Kidner et al. 293). Up until this point, merchants and tradesmen were inclined to travel together from settlement to settlement, forming unions with each other for protection against thieves or greedy feudal lords (Guild). With the advent of towns, the guilds grew larger and established roots. Now, guilds could exercise a monopoly over their wares or trade (Guild). Merchant guilds began to control the sale of food and goods, fixed prices, and charged foreign traders a fee to interact with the local economy (Guild). Craft guilds set quality guidelines and standardized practices within their particular trade (Guild).
In order to strengthen their influence and expand their numbers, the guilds utilized a hierarchical system of apprenticeship (Guild). The master of the trade would accept an apprentice, a young boy who would live with the master and his family while being trained in the craft (Guild). They were given food, shelter and education in return for working without monetary compensation (Guild). After a period of time, generally between five to nine years, the apprentice would become a journeyman, and could then go to work for another master and earn a wage (Guild). Guilds were highly competitive and oftentimes, masters would be selective of their apprentices, only selecting those with wealth or social status as well as familial ties (Guild).
While the first secular schools in Europe were guild schools, the concept of the university was on the rise, taking on the structure utilized in the guilds (PowerPoint, Chapter 10). Universities began as informal schools where those with similar interests would gather and contract a guest lecturer to visit and share their knowledge (Class Notes). As time progressed, the schools formalized and took the name universitas, from the Latin for ‘guild’ (PowerPoint, Chapter 10). The universities offered traditional education, such as math, music, and sciences; and were taught by a Master (Class Notes). Like the guild apprenticeship programs, students enrolled in the university would study for a certain period of years and earn their Bachelor’s degree (Class Notes). Once completed, they had the opportunity to continue their studies and ultimately earn a Master’s degree, upon which time they were able to teach at the university (Class Notes). Over time, universities developed specialties; Bologna became the school of law and the University of Paris became a school of theology (Kidner et al. 298). The early universities, drawing from the structure of the guild schools, laid the foundation for the higher education paradigm that is still used today.
Petrarch’s concept of a “Dark Ages” began as an ideology to elevate Classical culture, not as a means to discount the technological advances of the era or attribute any historical significance (Dark). It all boiled down to the philosophical aesthetic that the humanists were nostalgic for Vulgar Latin art and literature and felt that the [at the time] modern literature had gotten too lax in their treatment of grammar and vocabulary (Kidner et al. 340). Extending that narrow sentiment to a sweeping generalization that 900 years of history were somehow insignificant is irresponsible and flawed. The advancements in agriculture, leading to an increase in goods, faster processing, growing trade, expansion of education and ultimately culminating with the creation of a higher education system still in use today, serves to prove that there was, in fact, very much happening in these so-called “Dark Ages.”
Works Cited
Class Notes. Apr. 2016.
"Dark Ages." New World Encyclopedia. 26 Jul 2013. Web. 26 Apr 2016. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dark_Ages>.
"Guild." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 27 Apr. 2016. <http://www.britannica.com/topic/guild-trade-association>.
"History of Technology." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 27 Apr. 2016. <http://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology/From-the-Middle-Ages-to-1750>.
Kidner, Frank L., Maria Bucur, Ralph Mathisen, Sally McKee, and Theodore R. Weeks. Making Europe: The Story of the West. Independence, KY: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.
Lund, Ulla. "How the Heavy Plough Changed the World." Sciencenordic.com. 22 Jan. 2013. Web. 26 Apr. 2016. < http://sciencenordic.com/how-heavy-plough-changed-world>.
“Middle Ages." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 5 Apr. 2016. <http://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages>.
Power Point. Chapter 10.
"Dark Ages." New World Encyclopedia. 26 Jul 2013. Web. 26 Apr 2016. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dark_Ages>.
"Guild." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 27 Apr. 2016. <http://www.britannica.com/topic/guild-trade-association>.
"History of Technology." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 27 Apr. 2016. <http://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology/From-the-Middle-Ages-to-1750>.
Kidner, Frank L., Maria Bucur, Ralph Mathisen, Sally McKee, and Theodore R. Weeks. Making Europe: The Story of the West. Independence, KY: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.
Lund, Ulla. "How the Heavy Plough Changed the World." Sciencenordic.com. 22 Jan. 2013. Web. 26 Apr. 2016. < http://sciencenordic.com/how-heavy-plough-changed-world>.
“Middle Ages." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010. Web. 5 Apr. 2016. <http://www.history.com/topics/middle-ages>.
Power Point. Chapter 10.